Incorporating Citizenship Education Framework in Social Studies Teachers’ Education Programme in Sultanate of Oman

: Educational system in Oman is attempting to educate Omani students to be "good" citizens in an increasingly globalized society. However, a few studies that have been conducted until now in Oman revealed a gap between the intentions of the educational policy of teaching citizenship education in the schools and the actual practices of teacher education preparation programs. Therefore, any endeavor to develop citizenship in Oman schools will not achieve its goals without taking teacher education into account both pre-service and in-service. Accordingly, the present study aims to propose a framework for developing citizenship education in the initial teacher education in Oman. This descriptive study highlighted the gap between the policy and practice in social studies teacher education. The international literature reveals that student teachers feel insufficiently prepared to develop citizenship and Omani student teachers are not exceptional. Thus, the present study proposed a framework to incorporate citizenship education in the current teachers' preparation programs. Furthermore, the study reveals the inadequate presence of the topic of citizenship in teacher education. Therefore, teachers' understanding of citizenship becomes shallow, which undoubtedly leads to superficial learning on the part of the students. Therefore, a framework was proposed to develop citizenship in teacher education. This framework consists of the rationale behind the change, the Layout of the ground for change in teacher education, the mechanisms of the change, and the areas of the change.


INTRODUCTION
Citizenship education (hereafter CE) is witnessing a widespread concern around the world. Educational systems in different countries introduce citizenship programs to achieve two aims: to consolidate national identity, instill patriotic attitudes, and equip the students with the skills necessary to live in the globalization age. In order to achieve these aims, CE has become an important subject in most educational systems. From the viewpoint of Print (2000), CE includes: 'Learning related to the institutions and systems involved in government, political heritage, democratic processes, rights and responsibilities of a citizen, public administrations and judicial systems. ' (p.10). Zaman (2006) used CE to refer to civic education and civics. From his point of view, CE is an intended education program (a body of knowledge, understanding, skills, and attitudes) that is concerned with young people's understanding of society, particularly with influencing what students learn and *Address correspondence to this author at the Associate Professor of Social Studies and Citizenship, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman; E-mail: saifn@squ.edu.om understand the social world. Teachers are regarded as the key players in developing citizenship values in school. They are the key bridge between the intended and implemented curriculum. As Hargreaves (1994) argued that teachers do not merely deliver the curriculum, but they"develop", "define", and "reinterpret" according to their understanding of citizenship. Therefore, teachers are regarded by Sim et al. (2012) as 'curricular -instructional gatekeepers'. Thus, any success in delivering a CE curriculum depends on their perceptions and commitments. According to Zaman (2006 p.3), 'Teachers' perceptions and attitudes were not usually considered in much of the CE research, while much of the concentrations were given to students and learning.
However, last years have witnessed a growing concern among scholars about studying teachers' perceptions about citizenship (Sim, Chua, Yap and Lee 2012;Boadu 2013;Oats 2014, Hahn 2015. In Oman, Al-Maamari (2009) conducted a study to discover student teachers' perceptions (after that STs) of social studies and their tutors about citizenship and CE. The study reveals that student teachers of social studies in Oman are not provided adequate citizenship learning. Similarly, in Botswana, Oats (2014) discovered that teaching CE at colleges of education has not been successful because the curriculum does not have adequate content on CE. The values of CE, which are crucial to developing STs to be effective CE teachers, are not included in the syllabus included more. Davies, Gregory, and Riley (1999) found that teachers were not familiar with the key aspects of CE. Traditional pedagogy was a crucial issue emerging from the present study. Thus, the present study is highly significant in introducing a framework to incorporate CE in social studies in TE programs. The Paper consists of two main parts: first, a critical review of teachers' perceptions of CE will be carried out. Then, the framework will be fully explained.

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION
As mentioned above, teacher education's weakness (after that TE) programs on citizenship are regarded as difficult in implementing effective CE. However, Schugurensky and Myers (2003) found that social studies teachers were prepared to deal with teaching methods and classroom management. One of those teachers put it like this: '…there was not even much time spent on how teachers should behave in terms of role models for students, which I think is part of citizenship. That's something I have never really thought about, but, indeed, there is not much time spent in that year on how you should behave to be that good citizen role model for a student. So it's a lot of logistics, and this is how schools are run, this is how children learn ' (pp.338-339).
Ample evidence confirms that poor teaching of CE is a significant problem in many countries. Speaking about the future of civic education in an Australian context, Print (2000) strongly stresses the necessity of teachers' professional development: 'Supporting teacher professional development and changing pre-service TE will become a major challenge for governments, universities, and schools. Unless Australia has dedicated, knowledgeable, well-prepared teachers using an array of appropriate pedagogies, civic education will not be successfully implemented into Australian schools. No matter how brilliant the curriculum, how wonderful the curriculum resources, and how useful the research, the civics initiative will flounder without dynamic, effective teachers. At this point, attention to teacher needs appears to the Achilles heel of the civics renaissance ' (p.31).
Likewise, in Hong Kong, teachers are not well equipped, and their civic teaching is rather superficial. There should be teacher training in the education of values (Lee, 2004). Similarly, in Malaysia, Ahmad (2004) mentions that teachers hold negative attitudes towards civic education and do not know how to teach it, which results in students being uninterested in the subject. In addition, Ahmad (2004) found that 84.7% of pupils, who took part in a study to identify the effectiveness of history in developing citizenship, claimed that their history teacher did not teach them any citizenship values. One reason behind teachers' inadequate ability to carry out effective CE in the classroom is unfamiliarity about what CE means for teachers?. Ahmad (2004) concluded from his interviews with history teachers in Malaysia that the main problem is their limited (or lack of) knowledge of CE. Even if a little training is provided, it may increase ambiguity rather than improving familiarity with CE. In this context, Kerr and Cleaver (2004 p.30)  These results call for the inclusion of a civics dimension in teacher preparation programs. Kennedy (1998), for instance, calls for preparing a democratic teacher who can model democracy in their public, private and professional lives (Schugurensky& Myers, 2003). This is also stressed by Ahmad (2004, p.205 The rhetorical language in policy stresses effective CE, which can make students effective citizens. But this is not really what happens on the ground. According to the results of the studies mentioned above, teachers find themselves inadequately prepared to deal with CE. As will be illustrated in the next section, some scholars look at teachers as citizens who educate citizens. Therefore, they must be educated as both citizens and teachers. Teachers' practices and perceptions of CE have been gradually growing since the beginning of this century. Some research was conducted in different contexts, which can be explained as follows:

Citizenship of Teacher Education in Western Context
Citizenship in TE in Western context was explored by several studies (Wilkins 1999;Davies, Gregory and Riley 1999;Arnot et al. 2000;Losito and Heinrich 2001;Arthur 2002;Wilkins 2003;Leighton 2004;Hinton 2004;Davis et al. 2004;Harber and Serf 2006;Feldmann 2007;Koutselini and Mary 2008;Lenders, Veugelers and De Kat 2008). These studies reveal that TE does not appear to satisfy the requirements of CE. Some studies have provided evidence that teachers felt that they were not prepared to deal confidently with CE. Understanding of 'citizenship' amongst the trainee teachers in primary and secondary schools in the UK, Wilkins (1999) found that experiences gained from TE did not help them clearly understand what to teach in CE and how to teach it. This finding was further supported by a study conducted by Harber and Serf (2006), who examined the role of TE in England and South Africa concerning education for democratic citizenship. They concluded from interviewing 38 student teachers in both countries that a wide gap existed between TE programs and the experiences of STs. STs in England showed that confidence in teaching the subjects, except for those who trained to teach citizenship. Students in South Africa highlighted that the lecturers do not provide a good role model for teachers.

Citizenship in Teacher Education in Asian Contexts
The studies were conducted in Pakistan (Dean 2005), Singapore (Wang et al. 2006), Hong Kong (Leung and Print 2002); China (Fairbrother 2004); and Hong Kong and China (Grossman 2004). It clearly appeared from such studies that teachers encounter difficulty in understanding and practicing CE. Teachers are not fully aware of the meaning of citizenship (Dean, 2005). Their views of the importance of citizenship are influenced by how they understand it, their degree of patriotism (Wang et al. 2006), and the kind of nationalism they think is important (Leung and Print 2002). As a result, teachers' CE practices tend to be knowledge transmission, in which the teacher is active and the students passive in the learning process. Therefore, this might call for reform in both pre-service and in-service TE. In this respect, Dean (2005 p.50) stated that: 'Teacher education programs that prepare social studies teachers to educate for democratic citizenship must begin by engaging teachers in a critical reflection on teaching and learning in their classrooms, discussions of the purpose of education and their perceptions of citizenship and CE. They must then help teachers envisage a democratic society and design a CE program to realize it…. In addition, teachers need training on how to utilize students' participation in the celebration of local, national, and international days, student councils, student clubs, and community servicelearning programs. Teacher educators have a role to play in this process. They must demonstrate citizenship and work with teachers to plan, act, and engage in collective self-reflective inquiry until democratic principles and practices are internalized.'

Citizenship in TE of Arabic Contexts
Little evidence has been until now provided about the state of citizenship in TE in Arabic contexts. Hamad (1997) conducted a study to identify the role of "history" in developing a sense of belonging in the pupils in grade 8 in Egypt; he discovered that teachers used memorization methods to deliver the content. Equally, in a study surveying students and teachers in grade 9 in Saudi Arabia to identify their realization of citizenship, Zayed (1997) concluded that teachers had some deficiencies in their understanding of citizenship. AlAmeer (2005) provided some indicators about Saudi STs and citizenship. He has explored the perceptions of 544 students (441 male and 103 female) who studied at the colleges of education and some Saudi universities. One of the study's important findings was that Saudi students tend to avoid politics, as it might trouble their lives.
On the other hand, the students also held a strong sense of belonging to their nation, which manifests itself in different ways, such as working for the sake of society's will, deploring using violence, and supporting women's rights. More recently, Akar (2006) conducted a qualitative study to locate the challenges of teaching CE in Lebanon. From the data, which were collected by interviewing four teachers, he concluded that teachers' practices were less humanistic and democratic. In addition, teachers also argued that inconsistent messages were provided by the home, school, and society. The way of constructing curricula did not help them implement an effective pedagogy such as a democratic and reflective dialogue. Al-Maamari (2009) conducted a study to explore the perceptions of STs of social studies and their tutors in Oman about citizenship and CE. The results showed that citizenship was not an integral component of the social studies training program.
This review explicitly refers to the inadequate presence of the topic of CE in TE. Therefore, teachers' understanding of CE becomes shallow, which undoubtedly leads to superficial learning on the part of the students. These conclusions are also, to some extent, applicable to the African context. A study conducted by Adeyemi, Boikhutso, and Moffat (2003) examines the realization of CE objectives by interviewing and observing thirty-two social studies teachers drawn from eighteen junior secondary schools. The majority of the teachers felt that the objective of working to produce good citizens had either been minimally or satisfactorily achieved. Furthermore, teachers highlighted that their task to develop citizenship was impeded by several factors such as irrelevant instructional materials, job dissatisfaction, and large class size.
Based on the review above, teachers constitute a vital component of a successful CE program. It seems that preparing an excellent curriculum without preparing the teachers who can appropriately deliver its educational aims in general risks failure. Yet, teachers are not adequately prepared to teach CE because TE programs deal only with a few issues that are pertinent to CE.

A FRAMEWORK FOR INCORPORATING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION IN TE IN OMAN
Overall, the literature revealed a gap between the intentions of the educational policy and the requirements of teaching CE in the schools and the actual practices of TE preparation programs. As a result, the current efforts of the MOE to develop CE in Omani schools might have limited success unless TE is reformed. Therefore, the present study offers a framework, summarised in Figure 1, to develop CE in TE in Oman to prepare teachers who can develop citizenship in Omani schools. However, before starting the outlines of the perspective, it is crucial to define educational change and the stages to understand the required change in TE in Oman.

The Rationale Behind the Change
The present study shows that the current education program for social studies needs to be reformed to provide STs with adequate preparation in citizenship. The current concern of the MOE about CE requires teachers who have the required knowledge, values, and discourses related to citizenship. The study also suggests that tutors in the COE need to shift from the traditional approach to the democratic and participatory approach, which constitutes a major challenge for those tutors who became used to a specific approach years ago.
The reform in TE should cover the preparation program of social studies teachers and the preparation programs of teachers of other subjects, as the MOE is in favor of introducing CE as a cross-curricular theme. To prepare new teachers capable of teaching CE according to this new approach, the COE must reform their programs.
The call to reform TE to meet the requirements of CE has been echoed internationally. Educational literature refers to the high status of the teacher in current endeavors to reform. The American Federation of Teachers (2003)  Similarly, Davies, Gregory, and Riley (1999) stressed that citizenship would not be effective unless: 'All teachers have at least had an opportunity to explore key concepts such as democracy, citizenship, and pluralism. Without the minimum of a basic introduction to the fundamentals of citizenship, there is little hope for altering the current situation, in which teachers who have never explored the meaning of citizenship are drafted in to teach it due to the availability of a few 'free' lessons of their specialist teaching time ' (p.116).
TE must deal with CE because teachers are accountable for educating good citizens who will also be responsible for advancing their society. Patrick and Vontz (2001) pointed out three factors that explain the importance of citizenship. These are:

1.
A democratic political order cannot be sustained unless a sufficient proportion of individuals within each succeeding generation learn the civic knowledge, skills, and disposition needed by citizens to make the policy work.
2. Sufficient numbers of persons in each succeeding generation of citizens are not likely to learn essential civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions unless they are taught them deliberately and effectively by well-educated teachers in primary and secondary schools.

3.
Social studies teachers in public and private schools are not likely to teach effectively the civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed by citizens to sustain and improve their democracy unless they are equipped to do so through civiccentred TE courses. Kerr (1999) stated that there is no specialist teacher for teaching CE per se, but the teachers responsible for carrying out such a task are the teachers of social sciences, social studies, history, and geography. He claimed that there is no specific training either in preservice or in-service TE in CE, but such preparation is only provided for teachers of related subject areas such as social studies, geography, and history. Yet specialist teachers have been trained in England since the introduction of CE as a subject in secondary schools in 2002. Davies, Gregory, and Riley (1999)  From such a discussion, it is evident that the success of new initiatives to develop citizenship in Oman and elsewhere depends greatly on wellprepared teachers. As teachers are regarded as vital players in education for citizenship, they need to be well-prepared to carry out such a task.

Lay Out the Ground for Change in Teacher Education
A change must be brought about in TE in Oman to be in line with the current efforts conducted by the MOE to develop CE. The following steps should be as follows:

Disseminate the Meaning of Change
To bring about change, it is first necessary to understand its meaning. Fullan (1991) argued that:

'The problem of meaning is one of how those involved in change can come to understand what it is that should change and how it can be best accomplished while realizing that the what and how constantly interact and reshape each other' (p.5).
The educational change aims to alter the behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs of those involved in the education process. In addition, educational change also aims to bring about the change in the structures, procedures, and outputs of the educational organization or the whole education system (Oerlemans-Buma 2005). Fullan (1991) and Overton (2004) differentiated between two types of educational change: first-order change and second-order change. By first-order change, they mean improving the existing situation in schools' and teachers' preparation to increase efficiency and effectiveness. Second-order change is a comprehensive change in schools' goals, structures, assumptions, and functions, which requires a change in teachers' beliefs. In short, 'Second-order change becomes an integrated part of a system, whereas firstorder change is simply laid on top of the system' (Murphy 1999, p.18).
Educational change can be either voluntary or imposed. Voluntary change means we are willing to take part in or even initiate change under the conditions of dissatisfaction and inconsistency. By contrast, imposed change happens as a response to natural events or intentional reform in response to the change in political and economic priorities (Fullan 1991).
Educational change is a complicated process in terms of the resources that influence the views of those involved in the change process. For example, Fullan (1991) noted that:

'A policymaker charges that teachers are resistant to change; a teacher complains that administrators introduce change for their own self -aggrandizement and they neither know what is needed nor understand the classroom. A parent is bewildered by a new practice in reading and education relevance to future jobs' (p.3).
Several forces influence educational change, notably, the government, district, principals, teachers, students, parents, and community (Fullan 1991;Oerlemans-Buma 2005). Yet, these forces vary in their degree of influence, with the most influence with those who initiate change and supervise its implementation: 'Those in the policy elite who exert the most influence, using their power, privilege, and status in order to sustain and propagate particular versions of schooling' (Oerlemans-Buma 2005, p.3).

ESTABLISHMENT OF A PARTNERSHIP AMONG KEY PLAYERS
In Oman, the MOE carried out educational reform (BE) and collaborated with TE institutions to reform their programs to be in line with innovations in the school. However, the study conducted by Al-Maamari (2009) revealed weak cooperation and coordination between the MOE and the faculties of TE, although they formed joint committees to discuss all emerging issues in the educational arena regularly. These discussions were based on the assumption that any reform or development in the MOE must be mirrored in TE to prepare a well-prepared teacher to carry out reform. Therefore, one main condition for bringing about change in TE in Oman is creating a sense of cooperation among all parties. The present study suggested that one obstacle that might hamper TE reform is the conflict between the MOE and TE authorities. Hargreaves (1994) argued that mutual dialogue among the stakeholders is crucial to bring about productive change.
Dialogue has already been established between the two parties through the joint committees, but they disagree regarding emerging educational innovations. As a result, the reform (including the concern about CE) carried out in the MOE is not mirrored in TE.

Define the Areas of Change
Another crucial step to bringing about change in TE is defining the weaknesses in the existing program that need to be strengthened and developed. Before carrying out the change, Meister (2000) stresses that two things should be identified: the areas needing change and the best ways to bring about the change.
The study conducted by Al-Maamari (2009) discovered that the current preparation program is weak in terms of subject matter, especially associated with citizenship, and professional development, which is characterized by using traditional pedagogy. In addition, data showed that teachers are prepared to be only teachers, not citizens who work as teachers. Therefore, STs showed insufficient knowledge about their constitution and the rights and duties of citizenship. The program tends to develop conservative teachers instead of critical teachers who can discuss issues. All these areas constitute a minimal CE in Oman, and any reform should aim to bring about change in these areas. Other studies showed similar results. Yamashita (2006), for instance, found out from his study about teachers' and students' needs concerning global CE that teachers do not feel confident to deal with the issues of global CE, such as conflict and war.

Define the Role of Stakeholders
In order to make change work properly, all parties should be involved in the change process, namely, the MOE, the authorities in TE, the dean/s, the tutors, and the STs. With the involvement of all stakeholders, the fear of and resistance to change might be minimized as they feel that their voices are heard.

THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
The MOE in Oman is the only responsible authority to carry out the government's perspective on education. Although Hanson (1995) stated that in many countries, particularly an authoritarian one, educational provision is always run and controlled by a government in order to support the 'Government's socio-economic and political goals' (p.4), the MOE carried out a comprehensive reform at the school education level. All components of the education process−building, curriculum, evaluation, teaching methods, and teacher supervision and administration − had been changed to make the educational system able to meet different challenges currently being encountered in the country.

Yet TE institutions
have not yet carried out any change to their programs. Concerning CE, Al-Maamari (2009) asserts that the current program for social studies teachers is insufficient to prepare teachers to develop citizenship in the schools. Therefore, as has been mentioned by some policymakers, the MOE has repeatedly called for a change in TE, especially in the area of citizenship. They claimed that the MOE sent a list of the factors involved in citizenship that needed to be covered before the teachers' graduation. They added that they left the mechanism to be decided by the authorities in TE, but some of them suggested the introduction of a course called CE for all teachers, regardless of their specializations. Thus, the role of the MOE is to make those in TE acquainted with current and future plans being carried out in the MOE and building teachers' competencies cooperatively to deal with citizenship.

Teacher Education Authorities
Two main bodies supervise TE in Oman: the governmental representatives in the Faculty of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, and the private institution's representatives in the private universities that offer programs in teacher education. The two bodies offer somewhat similar programs to prepare teachers for Basic education and post-basic education. They both have joint committees with the MOE, but they claimed they did not carry out updates regarding educational innovations, including CE in the MOE. They showed unfamiliarity with such innovations, which hampers their task of preparing teachers who can deal with such innovation.
These authorities have to take the initiative to tailor and develop their programs according to the innovations in the MOE. They can utilize the joint committees to establish a mutual rapport with the MOE, resulting in an agreement regarding the aspects that need to be developed in TE. CE might not be in the future agenda for TE, so the dialogue might result in incorporating CE in such an agenda.

The Deans
The deans of the colleges that introduce teachers' education programs also have a crucial role to play in bringing about change in their colleges. Yet, they encounter two main problems in carrying out the change: teachers' resistance to change or to new ideas and shortage of time allocated for implementation. These problems are also encountered by the principals in schools, as was demonstrated by Westhuizen and Theron (1996).
Nevertheless, the Deans can positively contribute to incorporating CE in TE by facilitating change agreed upon in the joint committees between the MOE, the Ministry of Higher Education and Sultan Qaboos University. The Deans' awareness of the benefits of change for their colleges, staff, and students is an important factor in succeeding in incorporating CE in TE. The Study of Al-Maamari (2009) showed that the deans interviewed were familiar with the traditional pedagogy being used in their colleges. Therefore, locking the point of weakness will be an incentive for bringing about change in these colleges. In this context, the deans can facilitate change by transforming their colleges' culture from a bureaucratic and authoritarian culture to a more responsive and democratic one. In this democratic climate, all members of the colleges are expected to collaborate to implement the proposed change.

The Tutors
Tutors are another group of key players to bring about change pertinent to CE in TE. According to Al-Maamari (2009), the tutors created an authoritarian climate in their classrooms and focused on transmitting knowledge in their teaching. The question raised here is why do tutors still believe so much in the cognitive domain and the traditional methods to deliver it? Simply, it seems that tutors in TE have their own philosophies and objectives for teaching their courses, which might be a mismatch with those stated in the educational policy. Therefore, tutors are not expected to implement the intent of the educational policy unless they are involved in formulating its objectives. Thus, any development of citizenship in TE must involve the tutors in order to minimize their resistance.
Tutors must bring about change in three areas: using a new or revised curriculum and materials (subject matter), following a new teaching approach (democratic pedagogy), and altering beliefs that underlie new policies and programs. Fullan (1991) argued that all these factors are interrelated and necessary for change to work or to increase the possibility of its success. However, tutors should not be expected to employ all dimensions of change.
'Individuals may implement none, one, two, or all three dimensions. [For instance]-a teacher could use new curriculum materials or technologies without altering the teaching approach, or a teacher could use the materials and alter some teaching behaviors without coming to grips with the conceptions or beliefs underlying the change' (Fullan 1991, p. 37).
The tutors' beliefs and implementations need to be changed to make student preparation effective. Yet, we must consider that teachers rely strongly on their own expertise and experiences and may refuse reform that comes from the top down (Macmillan 2000) because they might think that this reform is built on the assumption that they carry out their work in schools insufficiently.
Tutors also need to be informed about the areas of change and provide sufficient support and training to carry them out. Teachers are against what they are not able to implement. Flores (2005) concluded from her study that teachers maintain that they cannot carry out the tasks involved in the change because they do not have the information, training, and resources. Teachers, in this case, need to develop themselves and gather the resources that help them deal successfully with the new subjects or programs to avoid the accusation of failing, which leads to them showing more stress and resistance.
Furthermore, teachers always resist changes that bring more duties for them, especially those that take their attention away from their teaching and the students. In addition, change in a hierarchical environment leads to more conflicts and bureaucracy, which in the end, is reflected by teachers in the classroom. By contrast, change in a democratic atmosphere is characterized by cooperation and dialogue between all responsible for carrying out change, namely, principals, teachers, administrators, parents, consultants, and so on. Therefore, CE needs teachers to shift to democratic, participatory pedagogy, which is difficult to develop in a hierarchical environment where teachers work according to strict directions.

Student Teachers
Student teachers are also important players in any change in TE. STs are the consumers of the COE; therefore, it is logical that they must be asked about their opinions regarding what they need, prefer, like, or hope. Hence, hearing their voices is essential for carrying out the change in the COE. Al-Maamari (2009) discovered that the STs did not feel sufficiently prepared to be citizens and to be teachers who can develop citizenship. Their claim demonstrated the limited implementation of CE during their practical programs in the schools. This justifies the need to involve the STs in the change process in TE. Fullan (1991) cautioned about excluding the students from the change process: 'The student is at the bottom of the heap, he or she has only limited power to bring about positive changes…students can exercise great negative power to reject what is being imposed' (Fullan 1991, p.180).
Students need to be empowered in the classroom by using the student-centered approach, which means that tutors need to reduce over-reliance on the teachercentered approach. As a result, changes in students' and teachers' beliefs must go together (Fullan 1991). For change to reach a high degree of success, students must be asked about their feelings and opinions concerning the new curriculum, teaching methods, or new classroom activities; neglecting students' voices means that they are 'objects, not humans' (Fullan 1991, 180).

The Areas of the Change
Current CE in Oman in general and the teacher preparation program for social studies tend to imply minimal CE (Al-Maamari, 2009). Minimal CE does not help achieve effective citizenship. This is because minimal CE is more concerned with historical and geographical teacher-centered knowledge, government institutions, and citizens' rights. In addition, CE is textbook-based and exam-led. These applications, which are proved by the present study in Oman, are not consistent with the current agenda for CE in Oman, which stresses that the proper preparation of teachers is an essential factor in developing citizenship in Omani schools.
The previous studies at the international level showed that the current teacher preparation programs are insufficient for developing effective citizenship. Thus, researchers have highlighted the fact that TE should address the following steps to prepare teachers who can develop effective citizenship in the schools (Cotton, undated): • Introduce more coursework in civic education for future teachers.
• Prepare student teachers to serve as a model of social responsibility for students.
• Prepare student teachers to deal with different approaches to teaching CE.
• Provide learning experiences designed to help prospective teachers instruct students in citizenship content, skills, and values.
• Provide citizenship-related education courses or units. Teacher training institutions should consider requiring such instruction, either as a course or integrated into civics and government courses.
• Provide student teachers in social studies education with opportunities to review basic constitutional concepts.
• Encourage the social sciences faculty to involve themselves in the overall teacher preparation process.
The current teacher preparation programs can be developed according to the maximal CE approach. Maximal CE stresses a balance between the learning components (knowledge, skills, and values), using different resources, using open democratic classrooms, focusing on national and international dimensions of citizenship, and linking the experience to the community by providing the students with some opportunities to participate in the community. Based on these principles, TE in Oman should focus on developing citizenship according to the areas illustrated in Table 1.

The Mechanisms of the Change
The proposed change associated with developing citizenship in TE can be carried out by adopting the following approaches:

1.
Establish the college's culture characterized by providing tutors with professional opportunities to help them interact, share, and construct knowledge with their colleagues (Dana 1993;Macmillan 2000).

2.
Empower tutors as agents of change by allowing them to express their needs and how they are best supported to make a difference in incorporating citizenship in their courses (Kadel-Taras 1996).

3.
Create a democratic learning environment in the college classrooms in which both tutors and the STs can freely develop a democratic teaching approach. Cohn and Kottkamp (1993) argued that teachers: 'who are not free to construct their own activities, inquire, engage in meaningful learning, take risks, make decisions, and assess their own competence would be unable to create those possibilities for students' (Quoted in Kadel-Taras 1996, p.10).

4.
Introduce the STs to a separate course on citizenship, as some participants suggested, or use different courses to develop the proposed learning outcomes of citizenship.

5.
Develop the current courses offered in the teacher education programs most pertinent to citizenship, namely, 'The history of Oman and Islamic civilization', 'The Arabic language' and 'The contemporary Omani Society'. In addition, courses on international issues should be introduced under the optional courses that STs can choose from (students are offered two optional courses, each allocated two credit hours). Currently, environmental education is covered in these optional courses that are offered for the STs.

CONCLUSION
It is crucial to acknowledge that TE programs need to offer the STs subject knowledge on citizenship and employ a democratic learning environment. Omani teachers need to be supported in every way possible; without that support, they will not be able to develop future Omani citizens who can live in the gradually complicated 21st century. Therefore, TE institutions in Oman need to express an explicit recognition in TE programs of citizenship, especially when many stakeholders accused the teachers of a low level of social responsibility. Hens, adopting the framework, which is presented in the recent study, might be helpful for policymakers in TE to help teachers develop their awareness about citizenship and the appropriate approaches to develop it.