Neurochemistry of Neurochemicals: Messengers of Brain Functions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/2292-2598.2017.05.04.6Keywords:
Neurochemistry, Neurochemicals, Messengers, Neurotransmitters, Psychopharmaceuticals, Neuropeptides, Brain Functions.Abstract
Neurochemistry refers to the chemical processes that occur in the brain and nervous system. This section of study determines how neurochemicals influence the network of neural operation. The brain transfers numerous chemical information via neurons to communicate. The main role of neurochemistry activities takes place in the brain, which allows it to perform numerous actions. Foundation of brain is a little bit different from man to man and several things can play a role in the levels of various neurotransmitters in the brain. It is supposed that differences in brain chemistry may accountable for a variety of behavioral disorders. A particular cell called neurons is the basis of brain. Neurotransmitters have the capability that it can trigger when ordered to do so, along with receptors for specific neurotransmitters. By sending messages with neurotransmitters to signal various cell activities, brain perform its functions. Neurotransmitter spreads chemical messages from neuron to neuron to broadcast certain work and thus it works. A neuron may accept many chemical messages, both positive and negative from the other neurons contiguous it. They are accountable to get the neuron to reply in different ways, or they may work combine to produce a certain effect. Since all of this occurs just within a split second, the neurotransmitter must be cleared away rapidly so that the same receptors can be activated again and again. Psychoactive drugs work by briefly influencing a man's neurochemistry, which thusly causes changes in a man's mind-set, cognition, perception and behavior. Neuropeptides are endogenous protein molecules that are utilized for neuronal signaling. These molecules exert more prolonged and diverse effects on behavior than neurotransmitters. Therefore the objective of this appraisal is to show study of the brain’s chemical makeup especially neurotransmitters, psychopharmaceuticals, neuropeptides and their activities to nervous tissue.
References
Siegel GJ, Albers RW, Brady ST and Price DL. Basic Neurochemistry. 7th Ed. Academic Press; 2006.
Benedetti F, Mayberg HS, Wager TD, Stohler CS and Zubieta J. Neurobiological Mechanisms of the Placebo Effect. J Neurosci 2005; 25(45): 10390-10402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3458-05.2005
Magon N and Kalra S. The orgasmic history of oxytocin: Love, lust, and labor. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2011; 15(l3): S156–S161. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.84851 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.84851
Benowitz NL. Nicotine Addiction. N Engl J Med 2010; 362(24): 2295-2303. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0809890 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0809890
Shawn C. Burdette and Stephen J. Lippard. Meeting of the minds: Metalloneurochemistry. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2003; 100(7): 3605-3610. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0637711100
Zeepedia. Neurological basis of bahaviour. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://www.zeepedia.com/ read.php%3Fbasic_neurochemistry_neurochemicals_neuromodulator_synaptic_cleft_neurological_basis_of_bahaviour%26b%3D92%26c%3D30
Shulera ML and Hickman JJ. Toward in vitro models of brain structure and function. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2014; 111(38): 13682-13683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414484111
Upadhyay RK. Transendothelial transport and its role in therapeutics. Int Sch Res Notices 2014; 1-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/309404
Lindquist KA, Wager TD, Kober H, Bliss-Moreau E and Barrett LF. The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behav Brain Sci 2012; 35: 121-202. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11000446 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11000446
Steinle JJ and Smith PG. Presynaptic Muscarinic Facilitation of Parasympathetic Neurotransmission after Sympathectomy in the Rat Choroid. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2000; 294(2): 627-632.
Boettigera A, Ermentroutb B and Oster G. The neural origins of shell structure and pattern in aquatic mollusks. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2009; 106(16): 6837- 6842. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0810311106
Pekka A, Postila, Vattulainen I and Róg T. Selective effect of cell membrane on synaptic neurotransmission. Sci Rep 2016; 6(19345): 1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19345
Diamond JS. Deriving the Glutamate Clearance Time Course from Transporter Currents in CA1 Hippocampal Astrocytes: Transmitter Uptake Gets Faster during Development. J Neurosci 2005; 25(11): 2906-2916. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5125-04.2005
Chaturvedi R, Reddig K and Li H. Long-distance mechanism of neurotransmitter recycling mediated by glial network facilitates visual function in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2014; 111(7): 2812-2817. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1323714111
van Golen FA, Li KW, de Lange RPJ, Jespersen S and Geraerts WPM. Mutually exclusive neuronal expression of peptides encoded by the FMRFa gene underlies a differential control of copulation in Lymnaea. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 28487-28493. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.47.28487
Adamson KJ, Wang T, Zhao M, Bell F, Kuballa AV and Storey KB. Molecular insights into land snail neuropeptides through transcriptome and comparative gene analysis. BMC Genomics 2015; 16(308): 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-015-1510-8
Ludwig, M. Are neuropeptides brain hormones? [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://sbmsintranet.bms.ed.ac.uk/ sources/Briefings/Ludwig%20%20Are%20Neuropeptides%20Brain%20Hormones.pdf
Chang C, Chiang C and Jackson MB. Fusion pores and their control of neurotransmitter and hormone release. J Gen Physiol 2017; 149(2): 1-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.201611724
Gabriel AMS. Taste receptors in the gastrointestinal system. Flavour 2015; 4(14): 1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2044-7248-4-14
Begg DP and Woods SC. The endocrinology of food intake. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2013; 9: 584-597. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2013.136
Baribeau DA and Anagnostou E. Oxytocin and vasopressin: linking pituitary neuropeptides and their receptors to social neurocircuits. Front Neurosci 2015; 9: 335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00335
Vaváková M, Ďuračková Z and Trebatická J. Markers of oxidative stress and neuroprogression in depression disorder. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2015; 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/898393
Holistichelp.net. Neurotransmitters and your health. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://www.holistichelp.net/ neurotransmitters.html
Rao TSS, Asha MR, Ramesh BN and Rao KSJ. Understanding nutrition, depression and mental illnesses. Indian J Psychiatry 2008; 50(2): 77-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.42391
Arnsten AFT. Catecholamine and second messenger influences on prefrontal cortical networks of “Representational Knowledge”: A rational bridge between genetics and the symptoms of mental illness. Cerebral Cortex 2007; 17(1): i6-i15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm033
Ayano G. Common neurotransmitters: Criteria for neurotransmitters, key locations, classifications and functions. Adv Psyc Neur 2016; 1(1): 1-5.
Lodish H, Berk A and Zipursky SL. Molecular cell biology: Neurotransmitters, synapses, and impulse transmission. 4th ed. W. H. Freeman; 2000.
Masson J, Sagné C, Hamon M and Mestikawy SE. Neurotransmitter transporters in the central nervous system. Pharmacol Rev 1999; 51(3): 439-464.
Uddin MS, Mamun AA, Sarwar MS, Chaity NH, Haque A, Akter N, et al. Medicine that causes memory loss: Risk of neurocognitive disorders. Int Neuropsy Dis Journal 2016; 8(1): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.9734/INDJ/2016/26317 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/INDJ/2016/26317
Hori K and Hoshino M. GABAergic neuron specification in the spinal cord, the cerebellum, and the cochlear nucleus. Neural Plast; 2012(2012): 1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/921732
Richards CD. Anaesthetic modulation of synaptic transmission in the mammalian CNS. Br J Anaesth 2002; 89(1): 79-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aef162
Steimer T. The biology of fear- and anxiety-related behaviors. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2002; 4(3): 231-249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2002.4.3/tsteimer
Wikipedia. Neurotransmitter. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter
Psych.lf1.cuni.cz. Neurochemistry. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://psych.lf1.cuni.cz/bpen/neurochemistry. htm
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D and Darnell J. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed. W. H. Freeman; 2000.
Elias L and Saucier D. Neuropsychology: Clinical and experimental foundations. Pearson; 2005.
Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Katz LC, LaMantia A and McNamara JO. Neuroscience, 2nd ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001.
Gordan R, Gwathmey JK and Xie L. Autonomic and endocrine control of cardiovascular function. World J Cardiol 2015; 7(4): 204-214. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v7.i4.204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v7.i4.204
Newkirk GS, Hoon M, Wong RO and Detwiler PB. Inhibitory inputs tune the light response properties of dopaminergic amacrine cells in mouse retina. J Neurophysiol 2013; 110(2): 536-552. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00118.2013
Shyu B and Vogt BA. Short-term synaptic plasticity in the nociceptive thalamic-anterior cingulate pathway. Mol Pain 2009; 5(51): 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8069-5-51
Diwakar S, Lombardo P, Solinas S, Naldi G and Angelo ED. Local field potential modeling predicts dense activation in cerebellar granule cells clusters under ltp and ltd control. PLoS One 2011; 6(7): e21928. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021928
Syková E and Nicholson C. Diffusion in brain extracellular space. Physiol Rev 2008; 88(4): 1277-1340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00027.2007
Miller GM. The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity. J Neurochem 2011; 116(2): 164-176. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v7.i4.204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x
Eiden, L.E. and Weihe E. "VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse". Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011; 1216: 86-98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ and Hyman SE. Widely projecting systems: Monoamines, acetylcholine, and orexin. In: Sydor A and Brown RY, editors. Molecular neuropharmacology: A foundation for clinical neuroscience. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical 2009; p. 155.
Brunton L, Bruce A. Chabner BA, Knollman B. Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 12 th ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill; 2011.
Rang HP. Pharmacology. 5th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2003.
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ and Hyman SE. Widely projecting systems: Monoamines, acetylcholine, and orexin. In: Sydor A and Brown RY, editors. Molecular neuropharmacology: A foundation for clinical neuroscience. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical 2009; p. 147-148.
Calipari ES, Bagot RC, Purushothaman I, Davidson TJ, Yorgason JT and Peña CJ. In vivo imaging identifies temporal signature of D1 and D2 medium spiny neurons in cocaine reward. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2016; 113: 2726-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1521238113
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ and Hyman SE. Widely projecting systems: Monoamines, acetylcholine, and orexin. In: Sydor A and Brown RY, editors. Molecular neuropharmacology: A foundation for clinical neuroscience. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical 2009; p. 175-176.
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ and Hyman SE. Widely projecting systems: Monoamines, acetylcholine, and orexin. In: Sydor A and Brown RY, editors. Molecular neuropharmacology: A foundation for clinical neuroscience. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Medical 2009; p. 158-160.
Ayano G. Common neurotransmitters: Criteria for neurotransmitters, key locations, classifications and functions. Adv Psy Neur 2016; 1(1): 1-5.
Uddin MS, Haque A, Mamun AA, Iqbal MA, Kabir MT, Rony RK, et al. Searching the linkage between high fat diet and Alzheimer’s disease: A debatable proof stand for ketogenic diet to alleviate symptoms of Alzheimer’s patient with APOE ε4 allele. J Neur Neurophy 2016; 7(5): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9562.1000397 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9562.1000397
Netter P. Biochemical variables in the study of temperament. In: Strelau J and Angleitner A, editors. Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement. Plenum Press 1991; p. 147-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0643-4_10
Trofimova I, Robbins TW. Temperament and arousal systems: a new synthesis of differential psychology and functional neurochemistry. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 64: 382-402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.008
Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM and Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 975-990. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008
Trofimova IN. The interlocking between functional aspects of activities and a neurochemical model of adult temperament. In: Arnold MC, editor. Temperaments: Individual differences, social and environmental influences and impact on quality of life. Nova Science Publishers Inc.2016; p. 77-147.
Depue RA, Morrone-Strupinsky JV. A neurobehavioural model of affiliate bonding: implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. J Behav Brain Sci 2005; 28(3): 313-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000063
Valenzuela CF, Puglia MP, Zucca S. Focus on: Neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol Res Heal 2011; 34(1): 106-120.
Ferguson JM. SSRI antidepressant medications: Adverse effects and tolerability. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2001; 3(1): 22-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.v03n0105
Uddin MS. Alzheimer’s disease and you: Can Alzheimer’s abduct consciousness? J Neurol Disorders 2017; 5(5): 1-2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6895.1000e123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6895.1000e123
Uddin MS, Nasrullah M, Hossain MS, Rahman MM, Sarwar MS, Amran MS, et al. Evaluation of nootropic activity of Persicaria flaccida on cognitive performance, brain antioxidant markers and acetylcholinesterase activity in rats: Implication for the management of Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psy Neuroscience 2016; 4(2): 26-37. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpn.20160402.12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpn.20160402.12
Uddin MS, Mamun AA, Hossain MS, Akter F, Iqbal MA and Asaduzzaman M. Exploring the effect of Phyllanthus emblica L. on cognitive performance, brain antioxidant markers and acetylcholinesterase activity in rats: Promising natural gift for the mitigation of Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurosci 2016; 23(4): 218-229. https://doi.org/10.1159/000449482 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000449482
Bystritsky A, Khalsa SS, Cameron ME and Schiffman J. Current diagnosis and treatment of anxiety disorders. Pharm Therapeut 2013; 38(1): 30-38, 41-44, 57.
Kimiskidis VK and Valeta T. Epilepsy and anxiety: Epidemiology, classification, aetiology, and treatment. Epilep Disorders 2012; 14(3): 248-256. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1684/epd.2012.0524
Uddin MS and Amran MS. Pharmakon comprehensive pharmaceutical pharmacology. 1st Ed. Bangladesh: Krishnachura Prokashoni; 2014.
Compart PJ. The pathophysiology of autism. Glob Adv Health Med 2013; 2(6): 32-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2013.092
Meier SM, Petersen L, Schendel DE, Mattheisen M, Mortensen PB and Mors O. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism spectrum disorders: Longitudinal and offspring risk. PLoS One 2015; 10(11): e0141703. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141703 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141703
Werner C and Engelhard K. Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99(1): 4-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aem131
Algattas H and Huang JH. Traumatic brain injury pathophysiology and treatments: Early, intermediate, and late phases post-injury. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15(1): 309-341. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15010309
Gold PW, Machado-Vieira R and Pavlatou MG. Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression: relation to the neurobiology of stress. Neural Plast 2015; 2015(2015): 1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/581976
Hepgul N, Cattaneo A, Zunszain PA and Pariante CM. Depression pathogenesis and treatment: What can we learn from blood mRNA expression? BMC Medicine 2013; 11(28): 1-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-28
Moritz ML and Ayus JC. The pathophysiology and treatment of hyponatraemic encephalopathy: An update. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003; 18(12): 2486-2491. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfg394
Shakirullah NA, Khan A and Nabi M. The prevalence, incidence and etiology of epilepsy. Int J Clin Exp Neurol 2014; 2(2): 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0924-2708.2004.00085.x
Paulsen JS. Cognitive impairment in huntington disease: Diagnosis and treatment. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2011; 11(5): 474-483. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-011-0215-x
Choudhary S, Kumar P and Malik J. Plants and phytochemicals for Huntington's disease. Pharmacognosy Reviews 2013; 7(14): 81-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.120505
Fountoulakis KN, Vieta E, Siamouli M, Valenti M, Magiria S, Oral T, et al. Treatment of bipolar disorder: a complex treatment for a multi-faceted disorder. Ann Gen Psychiatry 2007; 6(27); 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859X-6-27
Hilty DM, Leamon MH, Lim RF, Kelly RH and Hales RE. A review of bipolar disorder in adults. Psychiatry (Edgmont) 2006; 3(9): 43-55.
Ananth J, Aduri K, Parameswaran S and Gunatilake S. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: risk factors, pathophysiology, and treatment. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2004; 16(4): 219-228. https://doi.org/10.1111/10.1111/j.0924-2708.2004.00085.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0924-2708.2004.00085.x
Behan WMH, Madigan M, Clark BJ, Goldberg J and McLellan DR. Muscle changes in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Pathol 2000; 53: 223-227. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.53.3.223
Stucky CL, Gold MS and Zhang X. Mechanisms of pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98(21): 11845-11846. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.211373398
Helms JE and Barone CP. Physiology and treatment of pain. Crit Care Nurse 2008; 28(6): 38-49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4037/ccn2008.28.6.38
Racette BA, Esper GJ, Antenor J, Black KJ, Burkey A, Moerlein SM, et al. Pathophysiology of parkinsonism due to hydrocephalus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75: 1617-1619. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2003.028449
Davie CA. A review of Parkinson's disease. Br Med Bull 2008; 86(1): 109-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldn013
Guridi J, González-Redondo R and Obeso JA. Clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsons Dis 2012; 2012: 943159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/943159
Jenner P. Treatment of the later stages of Parkinson’s disease- pharmacological approaches now and in the future. Transl Neurodegener 2015; 4(3): 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-9158-4-3
Adams C, Wilson P, Gilbody S, Bagnall A and Lewis R. Drug treatments for schizophrenia. Qual Health Care 2000; 9(73)-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/qhc.9.1.73
Lakhan SE and Vieira KF. Schizophrenia pathophysiology: are we any closer to a complete model? Ann Gen Psychiatry 2009; 8(12): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859X-8-12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859X-8-12
Waln O and Jankovic J. An update on tardive dyskinesia: from phenomenology to treatment. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (NY) 2013; 3: tre-03-161-4138-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/tohm.165
Nelson LA, McGuire JM and Hausafus SN. Melatonin for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Ann Pharmacother 2003; 37: 1128-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1C460
Gould TJ. Addiction and cognition. Addict Sci Clin Pract 2010; 5(2): 4-14.
Fox TP, Oliver G and Ellis SM. The destructive capacity of drug abuse: An overview exploring the harmful potential of drug abuse both to the individual and to society. Int Sch Res Notices; 2013(2013): 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/450348
Lee J, Kresina TF, Campopiano M, Lubran R and Clark HW. Use of pharmacotherapies in the treatment of alcohol use disorders and opioid dependence in primary care. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015: 137020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/137020
Blum K, Han D, Femino J, Smith DE, Saunders S, et al. Systematic evaluation of compliance to prescribed treatment medications and abstinence from psychoactive drug abuse in chemical dependence programs: Data from the comprehensive analysis of reported drugs. PLoS One 2014; 9(9): e104275. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104275 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104275
Opalach C, Romaszko J, Jaracz M, Kuchta R, Borkowska A and Buciński A. Coping styles and alcohol dependence among homeless people. PLoS One 2016; 11(9): e0162381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162381
Hisahara S and Shimohama S. Dopamine receptors and Parkinson's disease. Int J Med Chem 2011; 2011(2011): 1-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/403039
Crockett MJ and Fehr E. Social brains on drugs: tools for neuromodulation in social neuroscience. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2014; 9(2): 250-254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst113
Berman DE, Hazvi S, Neduva V and Dudai Y. The role of identified neurotransmitter systems in the response of insular cortex to unfamiliar taste: Activation of ERK1–2 and formation of a memory trace. J Neurosci 2000; 20(18): 7017-7023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-18-07017.2000
Malty RH, Hudmon A, Fehrenbacher JC and Vasko MR. Long-term exposure to PGE2 causes homologous desensitization of receptor-mediated activation of protein kinase A. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13(181): 1-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-016-0645-0
Lüscher C and Ungless MA. The mechanistic classification of addictive drugs. PLoS Medicine 2006; 3(11): e437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437
Uddin MS, Mamun AA, Hossain MS, Ashaduzzaman M, Noor MAA, Hossain MS, et al. Neuroprotective effect of Phyllanthus acidus L. on learning and memory impairment in scopolamine-induced animal model of dementia and oxidative stress: Natural wonder for regulating the development and progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Adv Alzheimer Dis 2016; 5(2):53-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aad.2016.52005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/aad.2016.52005
Wikipedia. Psychoactive drug. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive_drug
Marsha F. Clinical toxicology. Caffeine and related nonprescription sympathomimetics. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2001.
Kazuki K and Hiroyuki S. High content of dopamine, a strong antioxidant, in cavendish banana. J Agric Food Chem 2000; 48(3): 844-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9909860
Penberthy WT and Saul AW. Supplements accelerate benzodiazepine withdrawal a case report and biochemical rationale. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://orthomolecular.org/resources/omns/v10n09.shtml
Di Carlo G, Borrelli F, Ernst E and Izzo AA. St John's wort: Prozac from the plant kingdom. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2001; 22(6): 292-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-6147(00)01716-8
Berumen LC, Rodríguez A, Miledi R and García-Alcocer G. Serotonin receptors in hippocampus. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012(2012): 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/823493
Prieto ML and Wollmuth LP. Gating modes in AMPA receptors. J Neurosci 2010; 30(12): 4449-4459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5613-09.2010
Pertwee RG. Inhibitors of the enzymic hydrolysis of endocannabinoids. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://www.tocris.com/pdfs/cannabinoid_receptor_review/page_011.html
Ahn K, Johnson DS and Cravatt BF. Fatty acid amide hydrolase as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of pain and CNS disorders. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2009; 4(7): 763-784. https://doi.org/10.1517/17460440903018857 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1517/17460440903018857
Kim CS, Lee S, Kim RY, Kim B, Li S, Lee IH, et al. Identification of domains directing specificity of coupling to G-proteins for the melanocortin MC3 and MC4 receptors. J Biol Chem 2002; 277( 35): 31310-31317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112085200
Bettini E, Sava A, Griffante C, Carignani C, Buson A, Capelli AM, et al. Identification and characterization of novel NMDA receptor antagonists selective for NR2A- over NR2B-containing receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2010; 335(3): 636-644. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.110.172544
Connelly WM, Errington AC and Crunelli V. γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is not an agonist of extrasynaptic GABAA receptors. PLoS One 2013; 8(11): e79062. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079062 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079062
Spitzer D, Simon Jr PO, Kashiwagi H, Xu J, Zeng C, Vangveravong S, et al. Use of multifunctional sigma-2 receptor ligand conjugates to trigger cancer-selective cell death signaling. Cancer Res 2012; 72(1): 201-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-1354
Glick SD and Maisonneuve IS. Mechanisms of antiaddictive actions of ibogaine. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 844: 214-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb08237.x
Simon FER and Simons KJ. H1 antihistamines: Current status and future directions. World Allergy Organ J 2008; 1(145): 145-155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1939-4551-1-9-145
Dhingra D and Kumar V. Evidences for the involvement of monoaminergic and GABAergic systems in antidepressant-like activity of garlic extract in mice. Indian J Pharmacol 2008; 40(4): 175-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.43165
Dubocovich ML. Pharmacology and function of melatonin receptors. FASEB J 1998; 2(12): 2765-2773. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.2.12.2842214
van Zwieten PA. Central imidazoline receptors as a target for centrally acting antihypertensive drugs. Pharm World Sci 1995; 17: 186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01870609
Mieda M, Hasegawa E, Kisanuki YY, Sinton CM, Yanagisawa M and Sakurai T. Differential roles of Orexin receptor-1 and -2 in the regulation of non-REM and REM sleep. J Neurosci 2011; 31(17): 6518-6526. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6506-10.2011
Merlin NJ, Joseph T, Shaiju SD and Mathan S. Neuropeptides –A review. Asian J Pharm 2014; 4(4): 198-200.
Romano A, Tempesta B, Di Bonaventura MVM and Gaetani S. From autism to eating disorders and more: The role of
oxytocin in neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Neurosci 2016; 9(497): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00497 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00497
Yan X-C, Chen Z-F, Sun J, Matsumura K, Wu RSS, et al. Transcriptomic analysis of neuropeptides and peptide hormones in the barnacle Balanus amphitrite: Evidence of roles in larval settlement. PLoS One 2012; 7(10): e46513. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046513
Nussey S and Whitehead S. Endocrinology: An integrated approach. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b15306
Southey BR, Sweedler JV and Rodriguez-Zas SL. Prediction of neuropeptide cleavage sites in insects. Bioinformatics 2008; 24(6): 815-825. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btn044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btn044
Bakos J, Zatkova M, Bacova Z and Ostatnikova D. The role of hypothalamic neuropeptides in neurogenesis and neuritogenesis. Neural Plast 2016; 2016(2016): 1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3276383
Neuropeptides.nl. Neuropeptides. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: http://www.neuropeptides.nl/
Jain SK and Zelena D. Role of ionotropic glutamate receptors in the control of prolactin secretion by other neurotransmitters and neuropeptides at the level of the pituitary. Endocr Regul 2013; 47(2): 65-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4149/endo_2013_02_65
Wikipedia. Neuropeptide. [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropeptide#cite_note-2
Neves A, Costalat R and Pellerin L. Determinants of brain cell metabolic phenotypes and energy substrate utilization unraveled with a modeling approach. PLOS Comput Biol 2012; 8(9): e1002686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002686
Lookformedical.com. Why are antidepressants targeting serotonin receptors? [cited 2017 July 25]: Available from: //lookformedical.com/search.php?lang=1&q=Receptors%2C+G-Protein-Coupled&src=faq
Serafini G, Pompili M, Lindqvist D, Dwivedi Y and Girardi P. The role of neuropeptides in suicidal behavior: A systematic review. Biomed Res Int 2013; 2013(2013): 1-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/687575
Kelly AM and Goodson LJ. Hypothalamic oxytocin and vasopressin neurons exert sex-specific effects on pair bonding, gregariousness, and aggression in finches. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014; 111(16): 6069-6074. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322554111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322554111
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
