Adolescent Risk-Taking and Future Roles: The Relationship between Delinquency, Substance Use, and Self-Efficacy

Sha  Luo; Sampson Lee  Blair

doi:10.6000/1929-4409.2026.15.05

Authors

Sha Luo The University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
Sampson Lee Blair The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2026.15.05

Keywords:

Adolescence, Delinquency, Risk-Taking, Self-efficacy, Substance Use

Abstract

Adolescents often engage in a variety of risk-taking behaviors, such as substance use and delinquency, and these behaviors can result in a multitude of possible consequences. In particular, adolescents’ perception of their capacity to function in specific adult roles, self-efficacy, is developed during the adolescent years. This study uses a nationally representative sample of high school seniors to examine how risk-taking behaviors may influence various forms of self-efficacy, and also how the social contexts of adolescents may impact self-efficacy, as well. Adolescents are shown to maintain relatively high levels of self-efficacy, indicating confidence in their ability to perform in adult roles. Alcohol use and delinquent behaviors are both shown to be salient predictors of self-efficacy, and peer factors are also revealed to have meaningful associations with self-efficacy. The findings and implications of this study are discussed within the framework of ecological systems theory.

References

Aas, H.; Klepp, K. I.; Laberg, J. C.; and Aaro, A. L. (1995). Predicting adolescents intentions to drink alcohol: Alcohol expectations and self-efficacy. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 56, 293-299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1995.56.293

Andrade, M.; Pereyra, S. B.; and Yang, C. (2021). The direct and indirect effects of family and school-related factors on Latino adolescent substance use. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 20, 4, 647-672. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2019.1685050

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: Freeman.

Bandura, A. and Barbaranelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67. 1206-1222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1131888

Beverly, H. K.; Castro, Y.; and Opara, I. (2019). Age of first marijuana use and its impact on education attainment and employment status. Journal of Drug Issues, 49, 2, 228- 237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042618823007

Bhatia, D.; Mikulich, S. K.; Natvig, C.; and Sakai, J. T. (2023). Emergence of sex differences in U. S. adolescent substance use. Substance Use and Misuse, 58, 8, 1021- 1029. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2023.2201861

Biehle, S. N. and Mickelson, K. D. (2011). Preparing for parenthood: How feelings of responsibility and efficacy impact expectant parents. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28, 5, 668-683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510385493

Blair, S. L. (2010). The influence of risk-taking behaviors on the transition into marriage: An examination of the long-term consequences of adolescent behavior. Marriage and Family Review, 46, 126-146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01494921003685169

Blair, S. L. and Dong, S. (2021). Employment, peers, and gender: Disentangling the context of American adolescent substance Use. Journal of Applied Youth Studies, 4, 221-238. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43151-021-00051-7

Blustein, D. L. (2006). The Psychology of Working: A New Perspective for Counseling, Career Development, and Public Policy. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Booth, J. M.; Urbaeva, Z.; and Park, D. (2021). An examination of the patterns of substance use in activity spaces and their relationship to problematic use. Youth & Society, 53, 3, 439- 465. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X19857265

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674028845

Bullock, B. (2013). Adolescent initiation and maintenance: An analysis of the roles of self- efficacy, sensation seeking, parents, and peers. Perspectives, 5, 1, 38-46.

Burnell, K.; Andrade, F. C.; and Hoyle, R. G. (2024). Exposure to peers’ online postings about substance and adolescents’ substance use: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 33, 3854-3867. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-024-02944-6

Capara, G., Vecchione, M.; Alessandri, G.; Gerbino, M., and Barbaranelli, C. (2011). The contribution of personality traits and self-efficacy beliefs to academic achievement: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 1, 78-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002004

Carroll, J. S.; Badger, S.; Willoughby, B. J.; Nelson, L. J.; Madsen, S. D.; and C. M. Barry. (2009). Marriage readiness and the transition to adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24, 349-375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558409334253

Chen, P. and Jacobson, K. C. (2012) Developmental trajectories of substance use from early adolescence to young adulthood: Gender and racial/ethnic differences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 154-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.013

Daigle, L. E.; Cullen, F. T.; and Wright, J. P. (2007). Gender differences in the predictors of juvenile delinquency: Assessing the generality-specificity debate. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 3, 254-286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204007301289

de Moor, E. L.; Sijtsema, J. J.; Weller, J. A.; and Klimstra, T. A. (2022). Longitudinal links between identity and substance use in adolescence. Self and Identity, 21, 1, 113-136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2020.1818615

Gatins, D.; Kinlaw, C. R.; and L. L. Dunlap. (2013). Do the kids think they’re okay? Adolescents’ views on the impact of marriage and divorce. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 54, 313-328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2013.780496

Gullone, E.; Moore, S.; Moss, S.; and Boyd, C. (2000). The adolescent risk-taking questionnaire: Development and psychometric evaluation. Journal of Adolescent Health, 15, 231-250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558400152003

Guttman, L. M. and Eccles, J. S. (2007). Stage-environment fit during adolescence: Trajectories of family relations and adolescent outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 43, 522-537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.522

Hays, R. D. and Ellickson, P. L. (1990). How generalizable are adolescents’ beliefs about pro- drug pressures and resistance self-efficacy? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 4, 321-340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00414.x

Hoffman, J. P. (2020). Academic underachievement and delinquent behavior. Youth & Society, 52, 5, 728-755. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X18767035

Hoffman, J. P. and Bahr, S. J. (2014). Parenting style, religiosity, peer alcohol use, and adolescent heavy drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 75, 2. 222-227. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2014.75.222

Hsieh, T.-A.; Simpkins, S. D.; and Vandell, D. L. (2023). Longitudinal associations between adolescent out-of-school time and adult substance use. Journal of Adolescence, 95, 131-146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12104

Hutchinson, D.; Teague, S.; Chamption, K.; Essau, C. C.; and Newton, N. C. (2020). Alcohol in adolescence. In C. A. Essau and Ph. H. Delfabbro (Eds.), Adolescent addiction: Epidemiology, assessment, and treatment (pp. 45-109). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818626-8.00003-7

Johnston, L. D.; Meich, R. A.; O’Malley, P. M.; Bachman, J. G.; Schulenberg, J. E.; and Patrick, M. E. (2022). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use 1975-2021: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

Jones, T. L. and Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004

Kreski, N. T.; Cerdá, M.; Chen, Q.; Hasin, D. S.; Martins, S. S.; Mauro, P. M.; Olfson, M.; and Keyes, K. M. (2022). Adolescents’ use of free time and associations with substance use from 1991 to 2019. Substance Use and Misuse, 57, 13, 1893-1903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2022.2115849

Lee, S.-Y.; Villagrana, M.; and Tadesse, A. (2021). Gender-specific trajectories of maltreatment, school engagement, and delinquency: The protective role of school engagement. Victims & Offenders, 6, 4, 587-609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2020.1860174

Locke, E. A. and Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 265-268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x

Ludwig, K. B. and Pittman, J. F. (1999). Adolescent prosocial values and self-efficacy in relation to delinquency, risky sexual behavior, and drug use. Youth & Society, 30, 4, 461-482. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X99030004004

Martin, P. D.; Specter, G.; Martin, D.; and M. Martin. (2003). Expressed attitudes of adolescents toward marriage and family life. Adolescence, 38, 150, 359-367.

Mason, M.; Mennis, J.; Light, J.; Rusby, J.; Westling, E.; Crewe, S.; Way, T.; Flay, B.; and Zaharakis, N. (2016). Parents, peers, and plances: Young urban adolescents’ microsystems and substance use involvement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 1441-1450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0344-y

McKay, M. T.; Dempster, M.; and Bryne, D. G. (2014). An examination of the relationship between self-efficacy and stress in adolescents: The role of gender and self-esteem. Journal of Youth Studies, 17, 9, 1131-1151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2014.901494

Merrin, G. J.; Bailey, J. A.; Kelly, A. B.; Le, V. T.; Heerde, J. A.; Doery, E.; Batmaz, E. A.; and Toumbourou, J. W. (2025). Continuity and change in substance use patterns during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood: Examining changes in social roles. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 23, 4155-4177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-024-01342-9

Michael, R. (2019). Self-efficacy and future career expectations of at-risk adolescents: The contribution of a tutoring program. Journal of Community Psychology, 47, 913-923. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22163

Miech, R. A., Johnston, L. D.; O’Malley, P. M.; Bachman, J. G.; and Schulenberg, J. E. (2015). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2014. vol. 1, secondary school students. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Institute for Social Research.

Musher-Eizenman, D. R.; Holub, S. C.; and Arnett, M. (2003). Attitude and peer influences on adolescent substance use: The moderating effect of age, sex, and substance. Journal of Drug Education, 33, 1, 1-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/YED0-BQA8-5RVX-95JB

Novak, M. L.; Gyawali, P.; and Wang, G. Y. (2024). Association between e-cigarettes, cognition and mood in adolescents. Substance Use & Abuse, 59, 12, 1820-1827. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2024.2383597

Peguero, A. A. and Shaffer, K. A. (2015). Academic self-efficacy, dropping out, and the significance of inequality. Sociological Spectrum, 35, 1, 46-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2014.978428

Pintrich, P. R. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544-555. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.544

Reynolds, J.; Stewart, M.; MacDonald, R.; and Sischo, L. (2006). Have adolescents become too ambitious? High school seniors’ educational and occupational plans, 1976 to 2000. Social Problems, 53, 2,186-206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.186

Robison, S.; Jaggers, J.; Rhodes, J.; Blackmon, B. J.; and Church, W. (2017). Correlates of educational success: Predictors of school dropout and graduation for urban students in the Deep South. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 37-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.031

Rodriguez, S. N. and Loos-Sant’Ana, H. (2015). Self-concept, self-esteen and self-efficacy: The role of self-beliefs in the coping process of socially vulnerable adolescents. Journal of Latino/Latin-American Studies, 7, 1, 33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18085/1549-9502-7.1.33

Schmidt, A. M. and DeShon, R. P. (2010). The moderating effects of performance ambiguity on the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 5, 572-581. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018289

Schneider, B. and Stevenson, D. (1999). The ambitious generation: America’s teenagers, motivated but directionless. New Haven, Connecticutt: Yale University Press.

Shippee, N. D. and Owens, T. J. (2011). GPR, depression, and drinking: A longitudinal comparison of high school boys and girls. Sociological Perspectives, 54, 3, 351-376. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2011.54.3.351

Skinner, E. A.; Connel, J. P.; and Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (1998). Individual differences and the development of perceived control. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63, 2/3, 1-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1166220

Staff, J. and Mortimer, J. T. (2007). Educational and work strategies from adolescence to early adulthood: Consequences for educational attainment. Social Forces, 85, 3, 1169-1194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2007.0057

Taylor, K. M. and Popma, J. (1990). An examination of the relationships among career decision-making self-efficacy, career salience, locus of control, and vocational indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 1, 17-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(90)90004-L

Tolli, A. P. and Schmidt, A. M. (2008). The role of feedback, causal attributions, and self- efficacy in goal revision. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 692-701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.692

Trice, A. D.; Hughes, M. A.; Odom, C.; Woods, K.; and McClellan, N. C. (1995). The origins of children’s career aspirations: IV. testing hypotheses from four theories. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 4, 307-322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.1995.tb00436.x

Van Zundert, R. M. P. and Engels, R. C. M. E. (2006). Adolescent smoking continuation: Reduction and progression in smoking after experimentation and recent onset. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 5, 435-447. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-006-9065-4

Watts, L. L.; Hamza, E. A.; Bedewy, D. A.; and Moustafa, A. A. (2024). A meta-analysis study on peer influence and adolescent substance use. Current Psychology, 43, 3866-3881. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04944-z

Willoughby, B. J. (2010). Marital attitude trajectories across adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1305-1317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9477-x

Yurasek, A. M., Brick, L.; Nestor, B.; Hernandez, L.; Graves, H.; and Spirito, A. (2019). The effects of parent, sibling and peer substance use on adolescent drinking behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 73-83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1251-9

Zimmerman, B. J.; Bandura, A.; and Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 3, 663-676. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312029003663