Autism Spectrum Disorder and Harassment: An Application of Attribution Theory

Melanie Clark Mogavero; Ko-Hsin Hsu

doi:10.6000/1929-4409.2018.07.19

Authors

Melanie Clark Mogavero Department of Criminal Justice, Georgian Court University, Lakewood, NJ, USA
Ko-Hsin Hsu Department of Criminal Justice, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2018.07.19

Keywords:

Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attribution Theory, Harassment, Stalking.

Abstract

The social and communication impairments among those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may result in some unknowingly harassing someone while pursuing a romantic interest. Weiner’s (1974) Attribution Theory suggests that when people attribute negative behaviors to a condition, they perceive less controllability, and evoke fewer negative emotions and punishments. The authors applied Attribution Theory using a sample of 545 undergraduates who received one of three vignettes depicting a male harassing a female romantic interest (no mention of ASD, mention of ASD, mention of ASD and difficulty with social relationships and communication). Those who received the vignettes that mentioned the perpetrator had ASD perceived the behavior as less controllable and fewer supported punishment. The results demonstrate support for disclosing one’s ASD diagnosis and communicating any social or communication difficulties to others in the event there are miscommunications that could lead to punitive consequences.

References

Allely, C.S. and L. Faccini (2017). Path to Intended Violence Model to Understand Mass Violence in the Case of Elliot Rodger. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37:201–209.

http://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.09.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.09.005

Allely, C.S., P. Wilson, H. Minnis, L. Thompson, E. Yaksic, and C. Gillberg (2017). Violence is Rare in Autism: When it Does Occur, is it Sometimes Extreme? The Journal of Psychology, 151(1):49-68.

http://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1175998 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1175998

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Anderson, Anastasia H., Mark Carter, and Jennifer Stephenson (2018). Perspectives of University Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(3):651–665.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3257-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3257-3

Archer, Nigel and Elisabeth Ann Hurley (2013). A Justice System Failing the Autistic Community. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 4(1/2):53-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-02-2013-0003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-02-2013-0003

Attwood, Tony, Isabella Henault, and Nicholas Dubin (2014). The Autism Spectrum, Sexuality, and the Law. London, U.K. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Atun-Einy, Osnat and Ayelet Ben-Sasson (2018). Pediatric Allied Healthcare Professionals’ Knowledge and Selfefficacy Regarding ASD. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 47, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2017.12.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2017.12.001

Baron, Ruben, M. and David A. Kenny (1986). The Moderator-mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51:1173–1182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173

Barry-Walsh, Justin B., and Paul E. Mullen (2004). Forensic Aspects of Asperger’s Syndrome. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 15(1):96–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940310001638628 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940310001638628

Benavides-Espinoza, Claudia and George B. Cunningham (2010). Bystanders’ Reactions to Sexual Harassment. Sex Roles, 63(3-4):201–213.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9781-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9781-7

Berryessa, C.M. (2014). Judicial Perceptions of Media Portrayals of Offenders with High Functioning Autistic Spectrum Disorders. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 3:46-60.

http://dx.doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.04 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.04

Brak-Lamy, Guadalupe (2015). Heterosexual Seduction in the Urban Night Context: Behaviors and Meanings. Journal of Sex Research, 52(6):690–699.

http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.856835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.856835

Brewer, Neil, Jordan Zoanetti and Robyn L. Young (2017). The Influence of Media Suggestions about Links between Criminality and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism, 21(1):1-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316632097 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316632097

Browning, Ann and Laura Caulfield (2011). The Prevalence and Treatment of People with Asperger's Syndrome in the

Criminal Justice System. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11(2):165–180.

http://doi.org/10.1177/1748895811398455 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895811398455

Byers, E. Sandra, Shana Nichols, Susan D., Voyer, and Georgianna Reilly (2012). Sexual Well-Being of a Community Sample of High-Functioning Adults on the Autism Spectrum who have been in a Romantic Relationship. Autism, 17(4):418–433.

http://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311431950 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311431950

Cai, Ru Ying and Amanda L. Richdale (2016). Educational Experiences and Needs of Higher Education Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46:31‑41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2535-1

http://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10803-015-2535-1

Campbell, Jonathan M. (2006). Changing Children’s Attitudes Toward Autism: A process of Persuasive Communication. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 18(3):251-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-006-9015-7

http://doi.org//10.1007/s10882-006-9015-7

Campbell, Jonathan M. and Brian D. Barger (2011). Middle School Students’ Knowledge of Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41:732-740.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1092-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1092-x

Campbell, Jonathan M., Jane E. Ferguson, Caitlin V. Herzinger, Jennie N. Jackson, and Christine A. Marino (2004). Combined Descriptive and Explanatory Information Improves Peers’ Perceptions of Autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25(4):321-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.01.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.01.005

Campbell, Jonathan M., Jane F. Morton, Kathryn Roulston, and Brian D. Barger (2011). A Descriptive Analysis of Middle School Students’ Conceptions of Autism. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 23(5):377-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-011-9234-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-011-9234-4

Cass, Amy I. and Stacy L. Mallicoat (2015). College Student Perceptions of Victim Action: Will Targets of Stalking Report to Police? American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(2):250–269.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9252-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9252-8

Cohen, Marissa T. (2016). It’s Not You, It’s Me...No, Actually It’s You: Perceptions of What Makes a First Date Successful or Not. Sexuality and Culture, 20(1):173–191

http://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9322-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9322-1

Corrigan, Patrick, Fred E. Markowitz, Amy Watson, David Rowan, and Mary Ann Kubiak (2003). An Attribution Model of Public Discrimination Towards Persons with Mental Illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(2):162-179.

http://doi.org/10.2307/1519806 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1519806

Cox, Bradley E., Kerry Thompson, Amelia Anderson, Amanda Mintz, Taylor Locks, Lindee Morgan et al. (2017). College Experiences for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Personal Identity, Public Disclosure, and Institutional Support. Journal of College Student Development, 58(1):71-87.

http://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0004

Crane, Laura, Katie L. Maras, Tamsyn Hawken, Sue Mulcahy, and Amina Memon (2016). Experiences of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Policing in England and Wales: Surveying Police and the Autism Community. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(6):2028-2041.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2729-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2729-1

Curry, Keith, Mark Posluszny, and Saundra Kraska (1993). Training Criminal Justice Personnel to Recognize Offenders with Disabilities. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services News In Print.

Davidson, Joyce and Victoria L. Henderson (2010). ‘Coming Out’ on the Spectrum: Autism, Identity and Disclosure. Social and Cultural Geography, 11(2):155-170.

http://doi.org/10.1080/14649360903525240 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360903525240

Debbaudt, Dennis (2002). Autism, Advocates and Law Enforcement Professionals. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Debbaudt, Dennis (2004). Beyond Guilt or Innocence. Forum paper, Autism New Zealand Inc., Worcester, MA. Retrieved May 31, 2018 from http://autismnz.org.nz/police/Pol_BeyGuilt.pdf

Debbaudt, Dennis (2006). Coming Out to Authorities. In Murray, Dinah (Eds.), Coming out Asperger: Diagnosis, Disclosure, and Self-confidence. London, U.K.: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Dell’Osso, Liliana, Ricardo D. Luche, Corrado Cerliani, Carlo A. Bertelloni, Camilla Gesi, and Claudia Carmassi (2015). Unexpected Subthreshold Autism Spectrum in a 25-year-old Male Stalker Hospitalized for Delusional Disorder: A Case Report. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 61:10-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.04.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.04.003

Fichten, Catherine S., Vicki Tagalakis, Darlene Judd, John Wright and Rhonda Amsel (2001). Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Cues in Daily Conversations and Dating. The Journal of Social Psychology, 132(6):751-769. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1992.9712105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1992.9712105

Folkes, Valerie S. (1982). Communicating the Reasons for Social Rejection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(3):235-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(82)90052-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(82)90052-X

Freckelton, Ian (2013). Autism Spectrum Disorder: Forensic Issues and Challenges for Mental Health Professionals and Courts. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 26(5):420–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12036 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12036

Freckelton, Ian and David List (2009). Asperger’s Disorder, Criminal Responsibility and Criminal Culpability. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 16(1):16-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710902887483 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710902887483

Ghaziuddin, M., Luke Tsai, and N. Ghazuiddin (1991). Brief Report: Violence in Asperger Syndrome: A Critique. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21(3):349–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02207331 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02207331

Gilmour, Laura, P., Melike Schalomon and Veronica Smith (2012). Sexuality in a Community Based Sample of Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1):313-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.06.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.06.003

Hall, Jeffrey A. and Melanie Canterberry (2011). Sexism and Assertive Courtship Strategies. Sex Roles, 65(12):840-853.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0045-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0045-y

Hall, Jeffrey A., Steve Carter, Michael J. Cody and Julie M. Albright (2010). Individual Differences in the Communication of Romantic Interest: Development of the Flirting Styles Inventory. Communication Quarterly, 58(4):365–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2010.524874 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2010.524874

Hall, Jeffrey A. and Chong Xing (2015). The Verbal and Nonverbal Correlates of the Five Flirting Styles. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 39(1):41-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-014-0199-8

http://doi.org/0.1007/s10919-014-0199-8

Haskins, Barbara. G. and J. Arturo. Silva (2006). Asperger’s Disorder and Criminal Behavior: Forensic–Psychiatric Considerations. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 34(3):374–384.

Haw, Camilla, Jane Radley and Louise Cooke (2013). Characteristics of Male Autistic Spectrum Patients in Low Security: Are They Different from Non-autistic Low Secure Patients? Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behavior, 4(1/2):24-32.

http://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-03-2013-0006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-03-2013-0006

Hayes, Andrew, F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical Mediation Analysis in the New Millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4):408-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360

Hayes, Andrew F. (2017). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process: A Regression-Based Approach, Second Edition. New York, N.Y.: The Gilford Press.

Hayes, Andrew F., Carroll L. Glynn, and Michael E. Huge (2012). Cautions Regarding the Interpretation of Regression Coefficients and Hypothesis Tests in Linear Models with Interactions. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(1):1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2012.651415 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2012.651415

Hayes, Andrew F. and Kristopher L. Preacher (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67: 451-470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028

Huws, Jaci C. and Robert S. P. Jones (2008). Diagnosis, Disclosure, and Having Autism: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Perceptions of Young People with Autism. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 33(2):99–107.

http://doi.org/10.1080/13668250802010394 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250802010394

Holton, Avery, E., Laura. C. Farrell and Julie L. Fudge (2014). A Threatening Space?: Stigmatization and the Framing of Autism in the News. Communication Studies, 65(2):189–207.

http://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2013.855642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2013.855642

Heider, Fritz (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York, NY: Wiley. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/10628-000

Hellemans, Hans, Kathy Colson, Christine Verbraeken, Robert Vermeiren and Dirk Deboutte. (2007). Sexual Behavior in High-functioning Male Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2):260-269.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0159-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0159-1

Hellemans, Hans, Herbert Roeyers, Wouter Leplae, Tine Dewaele, and Dirk Deboutte (2010. Sexual Behavior in Male Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Borderline/Mild Mental Retardation. Sexuality and Disability, 28(2):93-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-009-9145-9

http://doi.org10.1007/s11195-009-9145-9

Hurlbutt, Karen and Lynne Chalmers (2002). Adults with Autism Speak Out: Perception of their Life Experiences. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2):103-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170020501 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170020501

Iobst, Emily, Laura Nabors, Kim Rosenzweig, Laura Srivorakiat, Rachel Champlin, Jonathan Campbell et al. (2009). Adults’ Perceptions of a Child with Autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3(2):401-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2008.08.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2008.08.006

Jones, Edward. E., David. E. Kannouse, Harold. H., Kelley, Richard. E., Nisbett, Stewart Valins and Bernard Weiner, Eds. (1972). Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

Kohn, Yoav, Tarek Fahum, Gidi Ratzoni and Alan Apter (1998). Aggression and Sexual Offence in Asperger’s Syndrome. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 35(4):293–299.

Konstantareas, Mary M. and Yona J. Lunsky (1997). Sociosexual Knowledge, Experience, Attitudes, and Interests of Individuals with Autistic Disorder and Developmental Delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(4):397-413. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025805405188

Kotlyar, Igor and Dan Airely (2013). The Effect of Nonverbal Cues on Relationship Formation. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3):544–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.020

Lambert, Eric G., Brad Smith, James Geistman, Terry Cluse-Tolar and Shanhe Jiang (2013). Do Men and Women Differ in their Perceptions of Stalking: An Exploratory Study Among College Students. Violence and Victims, 28(2):195-209. https://doi.org10.1891/0886-6708.09-201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.09-201

Lindsay, William, Derek Carson, Gregory O’Brian, Anthony Holland, John L. Taylor, Jessica R. Wheeler et al. (2014). A Comparison of Referrals with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder to Forensic Intellectual Disability Services. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 21(6):947-954. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2014.918081 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2014.918081

Ling, C.Y.M., W.W.S. Mark, and J.N.S. Cheng (2010). Attribution Model of Stigma Towards Children with Autism in Hong Kong. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(3):237-249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00456.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00456.x

Loynes, F. (2001). The Impact of Autism, Report Prepared for the All Party Parliamentary Group on Autism. Retrieved May 30, 2018 from www.appga.org.uk/~/media/APPGA/Documents/ Reports/Impact

Matthews, Nicole L., Agnes R. Ly and Wendy A. Goldberg. (2015). College Students’ Perceptions of Peers with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1):90-99.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2195-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2195-6

Mayes, Thomas A. (2003). Persons with Autism and Criminal Justice: Core Concepts and Leading Cases. Journal of Positive Behaviour Interventions, 5(2):92–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007030050020401 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007030050020401

Mehzabin, Prianka and Mark A. Stokes (2011). Self-assessed Sexuality in Young Adults with High-functioning Autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1):614–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.07.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.07.006

Mogavero, Melanie C. (2016). Autism, Sexual Offending, and the Criminal Justice System. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behavior, 7(3):116-126.

http://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-02-2016-0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-02-2016-0004

Moore, Monica M. (2002). Courtship Communication and Perception. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94(1):97–105. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.1.97 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.1.97

Mouridsen, Svend E. (2012). Current Status of Research on Autism Spectrum Disorders and Offending. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1):79-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.09.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.09.003

Moxon, Lynne (2006). Diagnosis, Disclosure, and Self-confidence in Sexuality and Relationships. In Murray, Dinah (Eds.), Coming out Asperger: Diagnosis, Disclosure, and Self-confidence. London, U.K.: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Murrie, Daniel C., Janet Warren, Marianne Kristiansson and Park E. Dietz (2002) Asperger’s Syndrome in Forensic Settings. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 1(1):59–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2002.10471161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2002.10471161

Nordahl-Hansen, Anders, A. Ronald Øien and Sue Fletcher-Watson (2018). Pros and Cons of Character Portrayals of Autism on TV and Film. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(2):635-636. https://doi.org/10.10072Fs10803-017-3390-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3390-z

North, Alice. S., Alisa J. Russell, and Gilisi Gudjonsson (2008). High Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Investigation of Psychological Vulnerabilities During Interrogative Interview. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 19(3):323–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940701871621 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940701871621

Ortega, Francisco and Suparna Choudhury (2011). ‘Wired Up Differently’: Autism, Adolescence and the Politics of Neurological Identities. Subjectivity, 4(3):323-345. https://doi.org/10.1057/sub.2011.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/sub.2011.9

Payne, Jaime L. and Carla Wood (2016). College Students’ Perceptions of Attributes Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 37(2):77-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740114560883 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740114560883

Paynter, Alexa and Campbell Leaper (2016). Heterosexual Dating Double Standards in Undergraduate Women and Men. Sex Roles, 75(7-8):393-404.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0628-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0628-8

Preacher, Kristopher J. and Andrew F. Hayes (2004). SPSS and SAS Procedures for Estimating Indirect Effects in Simple Mediation Models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 36, 717_731. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553

Pearlman-avnion, Shiri, Noa Cohen and Anat Eldan (2017). Sexual Well-being and Quality of Life among High-functioning Adults with Autism. Sexuality and Disability, 35(3):279-293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-017-9490-z

http://doi.org/101007/s11195-017-9490-z

Phillips, Lorraine, Ryan Quirk, Barry Rosenfeld and Maureen O’Connor (2004). Is it Stalking? Perceptions of Stalking among College Undergraduates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31(1):73-96.

http://doi.org/10.1177/0093854803259251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854803259251

Pinto, Melissa D., Ronald D. Hickman, M. Cynthia Logsdon, and Christopher Burant (2012). Psychometric evaluation of the revised attribution questionnaire (r-AQ) to measure mental illness stigma in adolescents. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 20(1): 47-58. https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.20.1.47 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.20.1.47

Portway, Suzannah M. and Barbara Johnson (2005). Do You Know I have Asperger’s Syndrome? Risks of a Non-obvious Disability. Health, Risk and Society, 7(1):73-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500830500042086 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09500830500042086

Scragg, Peter and Amitta Shah (1994). Prevalence of Asperger’s Syndrome in a Secure Hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165(5):679–682. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.5.679 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.5.679

Shtayermman, Oren (2009). An Exploratory Study of the Stigma Associated with a Diagnosis of Asperger's Syndrome: The Mental Health Impact on the Adolescents and Young Adults Diagnosed with a Disability with a Social Nature. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19(3):298-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350902790720 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350902790720

Sperry, Laurie & Mark A. Stokes (2017). Stalking. In: Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders (2nd ed.). Volkmar, F.R. (Ed.). Springer Publishing Company.

http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102142-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102142-1

Strunz, Sandra, Constanze Schermuck, Sarah Ballerstein, Christopher J. Ahlers, Isabel Dziobek, et al. (2017). Romantic Relationships and Relationship Satisfaction Among Adults with Asperger Syndrome and High‐functioning Autism. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(1):113-125. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22319 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22319

Stokes, Mark. A. and Archana Kaur (2005). High-functioning Autism and Sexuality: A Parental Perspective, Autism 9(3):266-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361305053258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361305053258

Stokes, Mark A., Naomi Newton and Archana Kaur (2007). Stalking, and Social and Romantic Functioning among Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10):1969-1986.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0344-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0344-2

Stone, Wendy L. (1987). Cross-disciplinary Perspectives on Autism. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12(4):615–630. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/12.4.615 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/12.4.615

Stuart, Melissa, Naomi Swiezy and Iryna Ashby (2008). Autism Knowledge Survey: Trends in Understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Poster presented at the 2nd annual ABA Autism Conference, February 9, Atlanta, GA.

Swiezy, Naomi A. (2007). Autism Knowledge Survey-Revised. Indianapolis, IN: Christian Sarkine Autism Treatment Center, HANDS in Autism.

Swiezy, Naomi A. (2013). Autism Knowledge Survey-Revised. Indianapolis, IN: Christian Sarkine Autism Treatment Center, HANDS in Autism.

Swiezy, Naomi A., Joy Fairbanks, Melissa Stuart, Iryna Ashby, Erin. M Ables and Wendy Stone (2005). Autism Knowledge Survey. Christian Sarkine Autism Treatment Center, HANDS in Autism.

Tantam, Digby (2003). The Challenge of Adolescents and Adults with Asperger’s Syndrome. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12(1):143–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00053-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00053-6

Taylor, Kimberly, Gary Mesibov and Dennis Debbaudt (2009). Autism in the Criminal Justice System. North Carolina Bar Journal, 14(4):32-36.

Tong, Stephanie T. and Joseph B. Walther (2010). Just Say ‘‘No Thanks’’: Romantic Rejection in Computer-mediated Communication. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28(4):488–506.

http://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510384895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510384895

Weiner, Bernard (1974). Achievement Motivation and Attribution Theory. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press.

Weiner, Bernard (1980). The Role of Affect in Rational (Attributional) Approaches to Human Motivation. Educational Researcher, 9(7):4-11. https://doi.org/10.2307/1174664 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X009007004

Weiner, Bernard (1986). An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4948-1

Weiner, Bernard (1993). On Sin Versus Sickness: A Theory of Perceived Responsibility and Social Motivation. American Psychologist, 48(9):957-965. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.9.957 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.9.957

Willner, Paul and Mark Smith (2008). Attribution Theory Applied to Helping Behavior Towards People with Intellectual Disabilities Who Challenge. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 21(2):150–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2007.00390.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2007.00390.x

Wing, Lorna (1997). Asperger’s Syndrome: Management Requires Diagnosis. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 8(2):253–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585189708412008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585189708412008

Woodbury-Smith, Marc. R., Isabel. C.H. Clare, Anthony J. Holland and Anthony Kearns (2006). High-functioning Autistic Spectrum Disorders, Offending and Other Law-breaking: Findings from a Community Sample. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(1):108–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940600589464 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940600589464